标签： Greek State War Religion

Ｗ. Kendrick Pritchett,The Greek State at War,Part III:Religion,Berkeley,Los Angeles,london:University of California Press,1979.

Chapter 1　religion and greek warfare
关于马拉松战役的争论：
Ｕ. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff在他的Aristoteles und Athen 2(berlin 1893)第８５页中认为对Artemis的信仰给了希腊人巨大的力量，同时他批评其他学者忽略希腊战争中宗教因素。Ｐ１
Ｅ.R.Dodds在他的THE Greeks and the Irrational [Berkeley 1957]第117页中也说，Ｍuses对Hesiod所说的关于Helicon 之事并非仅仅是文学修饰，而是在表达一种实际的体验。Philippides在马拉松战役中看见Pan神和品达看见诸神之母也是类似的。Ｐ３
作者自己认为征兆、做梦、神谕是希腊人生活的基本元素，历史学家对这些的记录反映了当时的流行思想，因而对我们理解历史是一种必要的补充。Ｐ３
希腊人常常把他们的心理状态归于超自然力量的干涉，并且同样把那种战争中的使军队溃散的恐慌归于神、在前５世纪后尤其是潘神的干涉。Ｐ４－５
在小亚的Stratonikeia城发现的一份文献可能支持了Wilamowitz的观点。该文献残篇记述了宙斯的显现这一奇迹击退了包围该城和宙斯祭坛的Labienus侵略军。Ｐ６－７
希腊戏剧也能证明希腊人的普遍信念，即神的介入的力量是诸神的本质属性。Ｐ7
对希腊思想家来说，诉诸宗教解释并不仅仅是文学的手法，也是他们观念中事件真实发生的重要因素。Ｐ８
希腊城市没有希腊诸神是不可想象的。Ｐ８
部分由于他们无力解释自然的运转，又部分由于他们对自然中的精神敬畏观念，希腊人迷信地看待自然和超自然力量。粗略地说，希腊人拒绝把他们的宇宙观科学化。Ｐ８－９


Chapter 2　　Military Epiphanies
希腊人认为英雄有时会以偶像或以附身于某人的形式伴随着军队。(p.14)
作者在本章中整理了古代文献中有关诸神或英雄在战争显现的记述。


Chapter 3 The Military Mantike
1. Relation between Strategos and Mantis.将军和预言家的关系
预言家对军队的影响是将军无法忽视的，将军即使不信各种迷信，但也必须懂得相关知识，以便利用或消除这种迷信给军队带来的影响。

"The seer might have a fatal influence on public opinion." (p.49)

"The situation is well analyzed by K. J. Dover:'The general must go to his experts, the seers and when he has listened to their interpretation he must decide whether to trust them and act on their advice, risking disaster if they turn out to be mistaken, or to defy and overrule them, trusting in his own judgment and risking punishment from gods and men if the seers prove to have understood the divine intention correctly.'" (p.49)

2. MIitary Manteis. 军事预言家
军事预言家在希腊社会中占据着相当高的地位，有着巨大影响并受到很高的尊敬。(p.49)

"The manteis were awarded citizenship and other high civic honors, and in the distribution of booty after the battle received special consideration." (p.50)

有一种为Nilson等众多学者持的错误理论认为希腊古典时期的预言家不是来自主要城邦，而是来自低文明地区和边远国家。(p.52)事实上有些预言家来自雅典、斯巴达、科林斯、德尔菲、叙拉古、忒拜以及其它地区。(p.53)
另一个表明预言家声望的证据是相当多的献给他们的雕像。

"One clear indication of the prestige of military manteis is the relatively large number of statues dedicated to them. (p.53)

3. Military Role of the Mantis. 预言家的军事角色
预言家在军事扮有重要角色可能是因为他的长期的战争经验或与将军的紧密联系。有时谋略直接就来自预言家。

"In addition to his religious activities in warfare in matters of divination, the mantis sometimes played a strategic role, possibly resulting from his long experience in battles and his close association with strategoi.....Sometimes the strategic plan was that of the mantis." (p.56)

4. Divination as a Means of Building Morale. 作为一种鼓舞士气的手段的占卜
预言家的占卜和将军的演讲是希腊人鼓舞士气的两种主要手段。但作者认为问题并不那么简单。占卜师不仅仅是不可知论者的将军的工具，他本人的占卜技艺、军事经验、智慧等都起着实际的作用，他还当作传达神的启示的人。即使天才如亚历山大也常常咨询占卜师而非他的部将。

"It would be a mistake to regard the interpretation of omens as a mere form utilized by agnostic generals to inspire or restrain their superstitious soldiers. The mantis was expected by the exercise of his art to work success for his clients; and this art involved no little sagacity, evolved both from a knowledge of his techne and his long experience in military matters......he is respected rather as an instrument of divine revelation." (p.58)

士兵则对占卜充满迷信，这是将军所无法忽视的因素，将军必须认真对待并加以利用。史料不只一个地方提到占卜师的解释有时出于对军队士气的考虑而被隐瞒或篡改。(p.59)

"Since the soldiers were controlled by a strong religious sentiment in their formal observance of the omens, the generals at times wished the army to see τα ιερεια" (p.59)

"We have at least one example shere an unfavorable interpretation of the mantis was concealed from the troops by the hegemon for purposes of morale." (p.59)

5. Military Manteis at Athens. 雅典的军事预言家
从碑铭可知，雅典军队里有相应的军事占卜师在服务。

"So far as the epigraphical evidence goes, it would seem that there was at least one mantis officially designated to serve each annual board of strategoi." (p.62)

占卜师跟城邦的主要领导者关系密切。

"there were manteis who were closely associated with certain prominent leaders in various states. Some manteis seem to have served as advisers to such individuals on all matters relating to religion, including those of a military nature when campaigning." (p.62)

6. Sparta. 斯巴达
与雅典不同，斯巴达由国王负责奉献牺牲，解释并护持神谕，但会派人去德尔菲求取神谕。

"In contrast to Athens, the king might offer the sacrifice, but he was assisted by a mantis, just as in the interpretation of oracles each Spartan king was the keeper of the oracles but was assigned two Πνθιοι who served as messengers to Delphi and were made cognisant of all oracles." (p.67)

值得注意的是，对征兆的解释有时并不仅仅限于最高领导。(p.68)
修昔底德记载了三次斯巴达行军时中途因占卜不吉而返回的事。(pp.69-70)

7. Financial Remuneration. 金钱上的报酬
成功的占卜经常会给占卜师带来巨大的报酬。

"The rewards for successful divination by the military mantis were on occasion enormous." (p.71)

8. Techne. 技艺
占卜师主要用牺牲占卜，不过他的职责还扩展到鸟卜、解梦以及对其他小事件的解释。

"His chief domain was divination by sacrifices, although, as we shall see in the next chapter, his functions extended into ornithoscopy, the interpretation of dreams, and similar matters." (p.73)

占卜常用的动物器官有脾、胃、肾、心、肺和肝，其中肝最早也最常用，肝叶的缺失是灾难的一种预兆，许多军事行动因此被取消或推迟。
埃特鲁里亚人和罗马人常用的占卜动物是绵羊（sheep）。(p.81)
希腊人用的是山羊(goat)、绵羊(sheep)和小牛（calve）。(p.82)
在Ophrynion，色诺芬用小猪作过牺牲，但这只是个人给宙斯的献祭。(p.83)

9. The Battlefield Sacrifice. 战场献祭
战场献祭带有安抚神的意思，往往在方阵出发前。

"Propitiatory in nature, it was offered just as the phalanx started to advance." (p.83)

献祭的动物常常是母山羊，至少斯巴达人是这样。

"The animal used for this propitiatory sacrifice, at least by the Lakedaimonians, was always the young she-goat, called by the name of χιμιρα ("that which has seen one winter, yearling"). (p.84)

sphagia之战的过程：

"The Greek phalanx battle began with the rutual of the sphagia after the two opposing armies were in position, followed as they advanced by the singing of the battle paian, that is, a 'hymn to avert evils,' and it ended with the ritual of the erection of the battlefield trophy.The last was the νικητηρια, a thank-offering to a god, set up at the point where the flight began."(p.87)

当占卜为吉兆但军队却失利时，将军和占卜师一般不用负责任，是神造就了这一切。

"The god performed what was unexpected." (p.89)

"Greek popular belief that miraculous divine intervention comes αελπωζ, a major difference in emphasis."(p.90)

Chapter 9 Military Oracles
希腊人对神谕极为重视，通常将其放在卫城等最安全的地方。

"This attitude toward state oracles is explained, according to W. R. Halliday, by the emphasis in Greek superstition on the potential power conditional on the knowledge of the omen or oracle....It is probable that all city-states kept such precious collections of oracles as pertained to them." (p.297)

神谕的模糊性常常保护神避免被视为一个错误的先知。阿波罗更像是在扮演一个有用的信息部门。

"A certain vagueness and ambiguity in all foretellings of the future protected the god from the disagreeable possibility of being called a false prophet. Moreover, Apollo seems to have acted as a useful information bureau." (p.299)

荷马史诗里很少出现神谕祭坛。英雄们也很少征求神谕。(p.299)
在伯罗奔尼撒战争中，德尔菲都会给双方所要求的神谕，德尔菲仍然保持着它的宗教角色。

"The important point is that Delphi was giving oracles to both sides....Conversely. the fact that Dilphi gave oracular responses to, and received dedications from, both sides suggests that her role remained religious." (p.299)

德尔菲神谕威望之高以致无人敢于篡改或假造。

"In fact, so great was the prestige of the Delphic oracle that cities as well as private individuals may have been tempted either to modify an authentic oracle or to produce a forgery." (p.300)

现在学界不仅关注神谕内容，也开始关注神职人员和求神谕的方式。(p.301)
学者更大的兴趣在于征求神谕的国家所遵循的相应程序。(p.303)
伯罗奔尼撒战争期间征求神谕活动更为普遍。

"The circumstance that in anxious times of warfare ther would be much consideration given to oracles and thier hidden meanings finds its way more tha once even into the narrative of Thucydides." (p.318)

"It is quite clear that in war-time especially, the practice of consulting oracles was extremely popular. The chresmologoi seem to have been collectors and expounders of old oracles, genuine or fictitious."(p.319)

在传播中神谕常常被归于古老的诗人和传说中的预言家。

"In circulation were collections of oracles attributed to old poets and legendary manteis." (p.320)

在有关军事的神谕问题上，可以断言：希腊人真诚地相信神谕的预言力量，在战前人们会去神谕圣地问询，神谕是宗教系统的一个意义重大的部分，是一种试图沟通知识和超自然的机制。

"Oracles constitute a fruitful field for theories and controversies. But for our limited purpose of the study of military oracles, it is enough to assert that the Greeks had a genuine belief in the prophetic power of their oracles, that the oracular shrines were consulted before going to war, and that oracles were a significant part of the religious system, an institution which attempted to bridge the gap between knowledge and the supernatural. Their use reflects man's efforts to know and in part to control the unknown forces of fate which lay in wait for him.Just as a general consulted a mantis before crossing a river or entering the enenmy;s country, so the Greek city-state wanted the god's endorsement, and the individual wished to hear a chanted oracle which he could accept as a portent of success, before entering into war.(p.321)

Chapter 4 Miscellaneous Portents（各小节除了概要性介绍外，还有相关史料罗列和简述）
11.Omens from names
西塞罗提到，当开始远征、检阅军队或人口普查时，人们会选一个名字吉祥的人走在前面。应征入伍的第一个战士必须有一个幸运的名字。
在希腊早期文学荷马史诗中，名字在一个人的命运中有着主导性的影响。(p.135)

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