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5 SCHOOLING, LITERACY, BOOKS AND HISTORY
Before the coming of literacy, this is mostly done orally, though often informally or indirectly.
We must begin with the influence on the young child of mother and nurse (Plato, Laws 887d) and, later, paidagogos (in households rich enough to be able to afford slaves to perform the two latter roles). （P.80）母亲、保姆和监护奴隶对儿童的影响。
(The nurse)She might attempt to impose discipline with the help of such bogeys as Empousa, Lamia and Mormo. The primary duty of the paidagogos was to escort any son of the family to school.(P.80)保姆利用鬼怪来教育儿童以纪律。监护奴隶的首要职责是护送男孩去去学校。
The growing child will have become steadily more aware of his father’s role as family priest.(p.80)成长中的儿童会逐渐意识到父亲作为家庭祭司的角色。指父亲本身的作用和影响。
When the time came for the paidagogos to take the son of the house to school, ‘grammar’ or letters formed only about one-third of the curriculum, and, according to Plato’s Protagoras, as we shall see, the purpose of learning to read was to be able to learn Homer and other edifying poets by heart.(p.81)在学校，三分之一的课程是文法学习，主要目的是学习如何背诵荷马以及其他诗人的作品。
The other two-thirds of primary schooling consisted of music (mainly learning to sing poetry to the lyre) and gymnastics or athletics (wrestling, running and so on), and since the schooling of most Athenians went no further than this primary stage, to which we shall shortly return, we may suppose that formal instruction in school did little to shake the supremacy of the spoken word. (p.81)另外三分之二的课程是音乐和体育训练。大部分雅典人的学习不超过这个阶段，因此可以猜想学校里的正式教育不会动摇口头世界的主导地位。
After a boy had left school, his instruction remained largely oral. (p.81)男孩离开学校后，他的教育主要停留在口头上。
Vocational training, like political initiation, was normally given by fathers to their sons.(p.81)职业教育和政治启蒙一样，通常是由父亲传授给儿子的。
Fathers wishing their sons to have a ‘liberal’ education—one fit for the son of a free man—sent (p.81)
them to private day-schools, if they could afford to.(p.82) 父亲如果希望儿子接受德育，他就会送他去私人学校，要是他们支付得起的话。
It was the first job of the music master (kitharistes, kithara-player, a kithara being a heavy seven-stringed lyre) to teach his pupils to play the ordinary lyre. (p.82) 音乐老师的第一项工作就是教学生弹奏平常的里拉琴。
Learning to sing and play the lyre was considered an essential part of a liberal education. To be unable to play the lyre was to be uneducated (Aristophanes, Wasps 959). (p.82) 学习歌唱和弹奏里拉琴被视为德育的本质部分。不会弹奏里拉琴就等于没有接受教育。
The other form of instruction mentioned by Right was that provided by the trainer (paidotribes, boy-rubber—an allusion to the use of olive oil in massage). (p.82) 另一项教育是由教练提供的。
In the sixth century there began to be added to elementary education a third constituent, provided by what we might call the Greek master (grammatistes, teacher of letters). (p.83) 到公元前6世纪，增加了第三项基础教育，由所谓的希腊语教师提供。
there is reason to suppose that a standard text of Homer, designed to curb the vagaries of rhapsodes reciting at the Great Panathenaia, was prepared in Athens at the behest of Peisistratos or his son Hipparkhos (Platonic Hipparkhos 228b). At the same time official, and unofficial, collections of oracles in writing were being formed by oracle-mongers (khresmologoi) like Onomakritos (Herodotos 7.6.3). (p.83) 荷马史诗的标准文本抑制了吟游诗人背诵的反复无常。同时，也有了书面神谕的收集活动，无论是官方还是非官方的。
The earliest extant Athenian decree published on stone (ML 14), relating to Salamis, is dated to about 500. (p.84) 现在最早的雅典法令公布在石碑上，与萨拉米斯有关，可追溯到公元前500年。
In addition to the use of permanent public inscriptions, we must consider the use of temporary public notices written on wooden boards coated with gypsum (Wasps 349, 848) (p.84) 我们必须注意同时期刻在涂石膏木板上的公开的通知。
Ostracism, probably introduced in 508, presupposed that most citizens could at least read names. If most, or even many, of the citizens had been unable either to write a name on a potsherd (ostrakon) for themselves or even to read an inscribed ostrakon handed to them, the opportunities for deception would have been intolerably great. (p.84) 陶片放逐法的前提是大部分公民至少能读懂名字。否则就会存在大量的欺骗。
We first hear of Greek schools (on Ionian Khios, where 120 boys learned their ABC, and on Dorian Astypalaia in the southern Cyclades attended by sixty boys) in the first decade of the fifth century. (p.84) 首次遇到希腊学校是在公元前五世纪第一个十年，在开俄斯。
We may take it that by the mid-fifth century at latest most Athenian boys of the upper and middle classes attended for a period a school run by a grammatistes, and that the grammatistes was steadily gaining in importance over the kitharistes and paidotribes. (p.84) 最晚到公元前五世纪中期，大部分雅典上层和中层的男孩会进入由文法家开办的学校一段时间。文法家的重要性逐渐超过了音乐教师和体育教练。
There are several points to note. First, the ‘good poets’—narrative and encomiastic—were mainly epic poets, and above all, Homer and Hesiod.
Second, the poets’ writings were treated in some respects like sacred texts
Third, the value of learning by heart was unquestioned.
Fourth, Athenian parents and teachers did not hesitate to use compulsion, often of a crude physical kind.(p.85)父母和教师会使用强制手段，经常是体罚。
What then of the boys from homes with no slaves, or at any rate no paidagogos? ...
All we can say is that by the second half of the fifth century urban illiteracy will have been something of a handicap, and that a father who could not afford much schooling would probably be more concerned that his son should be able to read, write and reckon than that he should be able to sing or wrestle. (p.86) 到公元前五世纪下半叶，文盲是一种阻碍因素。父亲如果无力负担学费，可能会更加注重孩子的读写能力，而非音乐或摔跤。
So far we have been mainly concerned with primary schooling, though we noted in passing that there were young men as well as boys to be found in palaistrai.
No doubt some adolescents, including those who aspired to become poets, continued with their kitharists. 一些青年，包括想要成为诗人的青年，会继续和音乐教师在一起。
There seems to be no good evidence of literary education provided by grammatistai at the secondary stage. 似乎并没有很好的证据表明在第二阶段有由文法家提供的文学教育。
The teaching of arithmetic at the primary stage, presumably by the grammatistes, is not directly attested, but we know that various branches of mathematics were, at some stage, school subjects for at least some boys. (p.86) 算术教育难以有例证，但至少对某些男孩来说，许多数学分支是他们的学习课程。
It seems probable that the grammatistes gave some elementary instruction in arithmetic. How any boy was able to learn astronomy or geometry at school is not clear. (p.86)
In general we may assume that no lower-class boy had any secondary schooling, and that few middle- or upper-class boys had any secondary schooling that was at all intellectual, though the richer the father the more prolonged the schooling. (p.87) 一般来说我们认为底层的孩子没有授受第二阶段的学校教育，并且少部分中层或上层的孩子会接受，更富裕的父亲可能会延长学校教育。
After the end of their primary schooling and their release from the surveillance of the paidagogos, most middle-and upper-class boys enjoyed a great deal of freedom before they came of age at eighteen and became liable for hoplite service. (p.87)在基础教育结束并从监护奴隶的监管中解放出来后，大部分中上层男孩在十八岁到来和须服重装步兵役之前，他们可以享受到许多的自由。
Though vases afford some evidence of female literacy and perhaps even of girls’schooling, we may be sure that no girls had any secondary schooling. (p.87)花瓶提供了一些女性有读写能力甚至可能有学校教育的证据，但可以确定没有女孩子能接受第二阶段的学校教育。
It is not easy to determine the importance of books (papyrus rolls, that is) in fifth-century Athens. There is no evidence of anything like a publishing house, but the comic poet Eupolis (fragment 304) mentions that a part of the Agora was reserved for the sale of books. (p.87) 很难确定书籍在公元前五世纪的雅典中的重要性。没有印刷坊之类的证据，但喜剧诗人提到亚格拉的一部分是留作书市的。
The earliest prose works seem to have been those of the Ionian thinkers, travellers and architects—Anaximandros, Anaximenes, Herakleitos, Hekataios and Theodoros. It is possible that Anaxagoras of Klazomenai introduced the idea of the prose treatise into Athens. (p.88) 最早的散文著作是爱奥尼亚人的。可能是阿那克萨哥拉散文论文引进雅典。
These works were contributions to what De Quincey called the literature of knowledge, but there now began to emerge a prose literature of power. (p.88) 除了知识的著作，还开始出现了权力的散文作品。
Nor were sophists content to publish their works merely by reading them; they also circulated written copies of model speeches and of manuals. (p.88) 智者出书不仅是为了让人阅读，他们还流传演讲范文和手稿。
There were thus two kinds of prose writing as well as poetry available in book form, but it is unlikely that the demand for books was very great. No doubt by the time that ostracism was introduced most Athenians could read simple legends, but there is no
reason to suppose that many of them had much further use for reading. (p.88) 因此就有两种散文作品（知识的和权力的），但对书籍的需求不可能很大。到采用陶片放逐法时大部分雅典人能阅读简单的刻字，但不能想象他们中会有许多人拥有更进一步的阅读能力。
By the end of the fifth century, there were some fluent readers in Athens and many books for them to read. (p.89)到公元前五世纪末，雅典有一些能流畅阅读的读者，并有许多书可能读。
It remains to consider further how far the coming of literacy and books had loosened the hold of oral tradition. (p.89)
It was more than three centuries after the invention of the alphabet that something like our conception of history emerged in the bulky shape of Herodotos’ Histories (not his title)—the earliest substantial work of Greek prose to have survived. (p.89)在字母发明至少三个世纪后，历史观念才开始出现在众多类似希罗多德的著作的书中，这是现在最早的希腊散文作品。
The natural philosophers rejected Homer as a scientist, the sophists rejected him as a political theorist, Herodotos (2.112ff.) rejected him as a historian, Sokrates and Plato rejected him as a moralist and theologian; but most Athenians accepted him in all these capacities. (p.91) 自然哲学家否认荷马是一个科学家，智者否认他是一个政治理论家，希罗多德否认他是历史学家，苏格拉底和柏拉图否认他是道德家和神学家，但大部分雅典人认可他在这些方面的能力。
Even after the advent of widespread literacy, that upbringing remained primarily oral and emotional. (p.91) 即使在读写能力广泛传播之后，教育仍主要是口头的和感性的。
The impact of acted tragedy was even greater than that of recited epic. Greatest and, according to Plato, most disastrous was the impact of rhetoric—in law courts, Council and Assembly (Gorgias 452de, Phaidros 261ab). (p.92) 悲剧的影响可能要大于朗诵史诗，但在柏拉图看来，最大且最具毁灭性的是修辞学的冲击。
